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Ancient and Mediaeval History Class 02

Previous Class Topic

  • Discussion of the Imperial Cholas, focusing on polity, administration, and society.

The Cholas: Economy, Culture, and Art

Prosperous Economy

  • The Chola economy was noted for its wealth, reflected in the construction of large temples.
  • Extensive irrigation systems supported advanced agriculture, contributing to overall prosperity.
  • Trade networks were robust, including significant exchanges with China and Persia.
  • Agricultural resources and trade revenues provided strong financial support for monumental projects.

Guilds and Taxes

  • Multiple guilds and merchant associations flourished, such as Nanadesi, Paradesi, Vira Valanjiyar, and Manigramam.
  • Manigramam, despite its name containing “gramam,” was a prominent weavers’ guild.
  • Specialized taxes supported state finances, including levies on goldsmiths (Valliyaya), salt manufacture (Upayam Uppu), and others.
  • These taxation frameworks ensured a steady revenue stream for large-scale projects and imperial administration.

Literary Contributions

  • Classical Tamil, once highly formal during the Sangam age, evolved under the Cholas into a more accessible spoken form.
  • Notable literary works included “Nala Venba” by the poet Pugalendi, narrating the story of King Nala and Damayanti.
  • Ottakkoothan composed “Kulothunga Ula”, highlighting the achievements of Kulothunga Chola.
  • Kamban’s translation of the Ramayana into Tamil occurred in this era, reflecting support for extensive literary endeavors.

Temple Architecture and Sculpture

  • The Brihadeeswarar Temple at Tanjore exemplified the pinnacle of Dravidian temple architecture.
  • Construction under Raja Raja Chola demonstrated the depth of Chola resources and craftsmanship.
  • Sculptural arts thrived, especially bronze and Panchaloha (five-metal) images; the Nataraja Swami (dancing Shiva) icon stands out as a masterpiece.
  • The motif of Shiva as Nataraja symbolized cosmic dance themes and showcased the era’s artistic sensitivity.

Transition to the Delhi Sultanate

Background and Early Developments

  • The onset of the Delhi Sultanate is traced to Muhammad Ghori’s campaigns.
  • Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni’s approach centered on plunder, Muhammad Ghori pursued a permanent Islamic empire in India.
  • After the Second Battle of Tarain (1192), he defeated Prithviraj Chauhan, extending his influence.
  • Ghori had no sons and entrusted territories to favored slaves: Mangburni (Central Asia), Yaldoz (Lahore), and Aibak (India).
  • Upon Ghori’s death, these regional governors declared independence, with Qutb-ud-din Aibak founding the Delhi Sultanate.

The Five Dynasties

  • The Delhi Sultanate encompassed five distinct dynasties, differentiated by origin:
    • Slave (Mamluk) – Turkish
    • Khilji – Afghan
    • Tughlaq – Turkish
    • Sayyid – Persian
    • Lodi – Afghan
  • Notable points regarding each:
    • The Slave Dynasty had the largest number of Sultans (ten in total).
    • The Lodi Dynasty had the fewest Sultans (three).
    • The Tughlaqs ruled the longest, while the Khiljis ruled for the shortest duration within the Sultanate.

The Slave (Mamluk) Dynasty

Qutb-ud-din Aibak

  • Appointed by Muhammad Ghori as his representative in India, Aibak was initially one among many Sardars (commanders).
  • There was reluctance to recognize him fully as Sultan, evidenced by his omission from the Friday prayer (Khutbah).
  • Key military conquests included Hansi, Meerut, and Koil (present-day Aligarh).
  • Sent Bakhtiyar Khilji to expand into Bihar and Bengal, where Nalanda University was destroyed.
  • In 1210, Aibak clashed with Yaldoz (governor of Lahore) and defeated him.
  • Aibak died in Lahore from a fall while playing Chaugan (polo). Known for his generosity, he was called Lakh Baksh (Giver of Lakhs) and Akshar Baksh.

Transition after Aibak

  • Aram Shah, Aibak’s son, briefly assumed power but was removed due to incapacity.
  • The Sardars invited Iltutmish (Altamash), Aibak’s son-in-law, to become Sultan.

Iltutmish (Altamash)

Recognized as the true founder of the Slave Dynasty since many subsequent rulers were his blood relations. Implemented several reforms to stabilize the administration.

Key Reforms

  • Currency: Introduced distinctive silver coins (tanka) and copper coins (jital).
  • Chihalgani: Organized a body of forty nobles to include Sardars in governance.
  • Iqta System: Reorganized land grants (iqtas) given to Sardars.
  • Rest Houses (Sarais): Initiated the construction of sarais (rest houses) in Delhi for travelers and officials.

Mongol Threat

  • During Iltutmish’s reign, the Mongols under Chengiz Khan posed an imminent threat.
  • Mongol campaigns attacked regions near the northwest, but Iltutmish strategically avoided granting refuge to their opponents, thus preventing a full-scale invasion of Delhi.

Succession Issues

  • Iltutmish preferred his daughter Razia as successor, noting her efficiency in administration.
  • Traditional and conservative views against female rulership initially sidelined Razia in favor of Ruknuddin Feroze, an inept ruler.
  • Razia ultimately became the only female Sultan of Delhi.

Razia Sultana

  • Razia, Iltutmish’s daughter, governed efficiently but alienated Turkish nobles by elevating an Abyssinian slave, Yaqub, to a high military rank.
  • The Turkish Sardars conspired against her, and she sought help from Altunia, marrying him.
  • Returning from Bhatinda, Razia and Altunia were ambushed and killed, ending her short-lived but significant reign.

The Rise of Balban’s Influence

  • Several minor rulers followed Razia without strong authority until Ghiyasuddin Balban emerged as a dominant figure.
  • Initially a slave sold to Iltutmish, Balban rose through the ranks owing to his dedication and competence.
  • In 1265, Balban became Sultan, reigning until 1286.

Ghiyasuddin Balban

Regarded as the strongest ruler of the Slave Dynasty, known for enforcing centralized authority and strict discipline.

Balban’s Reforms and Policies

  • Divine Kingship: Asserted the idea of the Sultan as the “Shadow of God” (Zille Ilahi), reinforcing absolute monarchy.
  • Royal Customs: Introduced ritual prostration (sijda) and the practice of kissing the Sultan’s feet (paibos).
  • Abolition of the Chihalgani: Removed the forty-noble council to reduce their collective power.
  • Control of Iqtas: Limited the lands (iqtas) Sardars held, cutting their income and influence.
  • Crushing Crime: Gave harsh punishments to bandits (like the Mewatis) to establish order in Delhi.
  • Military Reforms: Formed a separate military department called Diwan-e-Arz, placing the army hierarchy under direct control of the Sultan.

Mongol Threat and Personal Tragedy

  • Mongols menaced India repeatedly. Balban assigned Prince Muhammad and Jalaluddin Khilji to defend the northwest, achieving victory.
  • Prince Muhammad died in the conflict, causing deep personal grief to Balban.
  • Balban’s death in 1286 created a power vacuum.

End of the Slave Dynasty

  • Bughra Khan, Balban’s son, refused the throne, preferring to remain in Bengal.
  • Balban’s grandson Kaikubad, despite paralysis, was installed as Sultan but proved incapable.
  • The Khilji clan, led by Jalaluddin Khilji, seized power in 1290, toppling Kaikubad. This event, termed the Khilji Revolution, ended the Slave Dynasty.

The Khilji Dynasty (1290–1320)

Jalaluddin Khilji (1290–1295)

  • Established the Khilji Dynasty after overthrowing Kaikubad.
  • Governed in a more accommodating style, showing leniency rather than harshness.
  • Mongol invasions persisted; Jalaluddin defeated them and converted captured Mongols to Islam (Naya Musalmans).
  • His daughter was married to Allauddin Khilji, the ambitious governor of Kara.

The Rise of Allauddin Khilji

  • Allauddin Khilji desired extensive power and wealth to fulfill imperial ambitions.
  • In 1295, he attacked Devagiri (Daulatabad) in the Deccan (Yadava kingdom) and seized its riches.
  • Concealing the loot from Jalaluddin, he plotted to eliminate his father-in-law.
  • Jalaluddin was invited to Kara, murdered, and his wealth distributed to win over nobles and soldiers.
  • Allauddin ascended the throne by force, marking the start of Khilji Imperialism in North India.

Allauddin Khilji: Conquests and Campaigns

Initial Northern Expansions

  • Secured power in Delhi and set out to dominate other regions.
  • Noted conquests included:
    • 1296: Defeat of Rana Karna Deva of Gujarat, capturing Karna Deva’s wife Kamala Devi and the convert Malik Kafur.
    • 1299: Victory over Rana Hamir Dev of Ranthambore.
    • 1303: Seizure of Chittor, traditionally associated with the story of Rani Padmini.
    • 1305: Conquest of Malwa, defeating Rana Mahalak Dev and solidifying control across northern India.

Campaigns in the South (Led by Malik Kafur)

  • Allauddin focused on extracting wealth without permanently annexing southern kingdoms.
  • Devagiri (1309): A second attack to punish Ramachandra Deva for not sending tribute and for sheltering enemies from Gujarat.
    • Karna Deva’s daughter, Deval Devi, was captured and married to Allauddin’s son.
  • Warangal (1309–1310): Subjugation of Prataparudra Deva of the Kakatiya lineage in present-day Telangana.
  • Hoysala Kingdom: Malik Kafur advanced into Karnataka, defeating Veera Ballala of Dwarasamudra.
  • Madurai: Malik Kafur intervened in a local struggle between Sundara Pandya and Veerapandiya, siding with Sundara Pandya.
    • Plunder followed these victories, and Malik Kafur erected a victory pillar (Vijayastambha) at Rameshwaram.
  • Allauddin’s direct rule extended primarily to Malwa, while southern rulers were made to pay tribute rather than be annexed.

Major Reforms under Allauddin Khilji

Curbs on Nobles (Sardars)

  • Stopped granting new iqtas to limit feudal power.
  • Prohibited lavish gatherings and the forging of alliances among noble families without state oversight.
  • Deployed secret agents (muhtasibs) who monitored potential conspiracies and moral conduct.

Military Organization

  • Created a standing army directly paid from the treasury to reduce reliance on privately raised forces.
  • Maintained strict rosters (chehra) to identify soldiers and introduced the dagh system for branding horses.
  • Salaries were disbursed in cash (itlaq), ensuring loyalty and a full-time force under central command.

Market Controls

  • Implemented one of the most rigorous market regulation policies in medieval India.
  • Fixed the prices of essentials (food grains, sugar, cooking oil) to sustain his large standing army affordably.
  • Registered merchants in Delhi, enforcing strict compliance with state-determined rates.
  • Vigilance in weights and measures deterred cheating, backed by harsh penalties.

Land Revenue System

  • Adopted crop estimation (Kankut) to calculate yields, imposing a high tax rate of up to 50% on produce.
  • Adjusted taxes yearly, ensuring consistent revenue even if crop outputs varied.
  • Eliminated hereditary offices (often held by local Hindu elites) to prevent corruption and create a centralized land administration.
  • Established Diwan-e-mustakharin to collect arrears and enforce timely payments.

Relations with Religious Authorities

  • Showed minimal deference to the Khalifa, centralizing authority under the Sultan’s direct power.
  • Limited clerical interference in state matters, reinforcing an autocratic style.

Topic to be Discussed in the Next Class

  • Further examination of Khilji Imperialism and continuing governance details under Allauddin Khilji.